Fallacies

Post Hoc:
This fallacy is based on the mistaken idea that simply because one event happens before another, then the first event causes the second event. “After this… therefore because of this…”
            - Look for different explanations
            - Is there sufficient proof or evidence to support the conclusion?
            - Consider the possibility of coincidence

 

Ad Hominem:
This is Latin for “against the man”. An argument that attempts to dismiss the argument by attacking the person who makes it.

 

Strawman:
The argument is misinterpreted by exaggerating, distorting or simplifying it; which in turn makes it weaker. This makes the argument easier to refute.
            - Arguments appear grossly exaggerated
            - It is usually obviously incorrect
            - Words like ‘ridiculous’ , ‘wild’, ‘ludicrous’ are used

 

Tu Quoque:
This is Latin for “you too”. The pattern of reasoning is that we should do something because someone else is doing it.

 

Sweeping Generalisation:
There is sufficient evidence for the generalisation that is being made. This can mainly be seen in representative samples.

 

Slippery Slope:
 The point being made suggests that once the first step is taken on s slippery slope, it leads, often inevitably to further steps and to increasingly undesirable consequences.

 

Confusing Necessary Condition:
Something must happen for something else to happen. This fallacy usually jumps to conclusions.

 

Confusing Sufficient Conditions: 
Something must happen for it to be certain that something else will happen. This fallacy usually jumps to conclusions.

 

Two Wrongs Don’t Make A Right:
This is justified by saying one bad action is on the basis of another bad action that is accepted. It is also known as “reasoning from wrong actions”.

 

False Dilemma:       
The argument is restricted and limited to the options that are available.

 

Inconsistency:
The claims being made within the argument contradict each other.

 

Circular Argument:
The reason and the conclusion are the same.

Argument Elements

An argument has to have a conclusion with at least one supporting reason.


Reason:
A cause, explanation, or justification for an action or event.


Evidence:
Something that supports a reason; this usually can be seen in the form of statistics.


Examples:
Something which is used as evidence to illustrate a principle.


Claim:
A statement or judgement that can be challenged.


Counter Argument:
An argument made that is against the conclusion.


Counter Assertion:
When a reason is presented that supports an opponent's argument.


Hypothetical Reasoning:
A claim in the form "If this ... then that ..." , if something happens it will cause something else to happen.


Assumption:
A missing reason in the argument. An assumption is essential for the conclusion to be drawn.

R.A.V.E.N

Reputation:
How reliable is the source or person that is providing the information.

Ability to Perceive:
A source using the five sense to assess an event or situation.

Vested Interest:
Personal interest leading to the expectation of personal gain from a favorable outcome.

Expertise:
Skills, experience and training that give someone specialist knowledge and judgment.

Neutrality:
Not being bias.

Credibility & Plausibility

Credibility:
Whether a claim or piece of evidence can be believed.

Plausibility:
Whether or not a claim or piece of evidence is reasonable.



All these points need to be included when evaluating the information you are given.

Witness:
A person who saw or heard an event.

 

Witness Statement:
A report by someone who has actually seen or heard an event.

 

Eye-witness:
Someone who provides evidence based on first-hand experience.

 

Hearsay:
Evidence based on secondhand information from another source, who may have interpreted it.

 

Source:
A person, organization or document providing information or evidence.

 

Corroboration:
Confirmation of support for evidence given by one source by another source.

 

Criteria:
Standards or measures against which something can be measured.

 

 

Bias:
A one sided opinion, persuading others to follow the same view.